Paciano: Ang Limot na Rizal

PACIANO: ANG LIMOT NA RIZAL
Daniel Mendoza Anciano

Ang taong 1996 ay idineklara ng ating pamahalaan na Taon ng Mga Bayani at ang kulminasyon ng nasabing aktibidad ay masesentro sa pagunita ng sambayanang Filipino sa sentenaryo ng kamartiran ni Dr. Jose P. Rizal. Isang indibidwal na nag-alay ng kaniyang buhay para sa katuparan ng kaniyang bisyon na magkaroon ng kagalingan para sa kaniyang mga kababayan sa pamamagitan ng pagpapairal ng mga reporma sa noon ay kolonyal na pamahalaan ng Espanya sa bansa. Sa kabilang dako, ang pagdakila ng sambayanang Filipino kay Rizal ay nagsilbing isang trahedya, sa isang lalaking tunay na nasa likuran ng kaniyang buhay at kabayanihan na natabunan ng kaniyang maningning na kasikatan - ang lalaking ito ay si Paciano Mercado, ang limot na Rizal.

Mayroong dalawang kontensiyon ukol sa pagiging pigurang historikal ni Paciano; Una naging sikat si Paciano dahilan sa kapatid siya ni Rizal; pangalawa, naging sikat si Rizal, dahilan sa naging kapatid niya si Paciano. Sa dalawang magkasalungat na kontensiyong ito, wala akong pangingimi kahit isang sandali na piliin ang huli. Ang manunulat ng biograpiya ni Rizal na si Leon Ma. Guerrero ay napuna ang pagkalimot kay Paciano Mercado at ipinahayag ang ganito "Ang papel na ginampanan ni Paciano sa buhay ni Jose ay nangangailangan ng higit na atensiyon kaysa sa kaniyang dapat na matanggap". Ang artikulong ito ay naglalayon na bakasin ang kritikal at mapagpasiyang na papel ni Paciano sa kamulatan ng kaniyang nakababatang kapatid, kung papaano niya inihatid si Rizal sa kalagayan bilang isang pambansang bayani, at kung papaano nilandas ni Paciano ang isang ideolohiya at pagkilos pulitikal na kailanman ay hindi pinangahasang landasin ng kaniyang higit na tanyag na kapatid.

Si Paciano sa Panahon ng Liberalismo

Ang taon ng pag-aaral ni Paciano Mercado sa Colegio de San Jose ay napanahon sa pagbagsak ni Reyna Isabel II ng Espanya na naging dahilan sa pangingimbabaw ng liberalismo hindi lamang sa Espanya kundi maging sa Pilipinas. Ang panunungkulan ni Carlos Ma. de la Torre bilang gobernador heneral sa Filipinas ay nagbigay daan sa kaluwagan pulitikal, na-organisa at aktibong kumilos ang Komite ng mga Anak ng Bayan na binubuo ng mga Filipino at mga liberal na Espanyol, at ang pagsikat ng isang paring sekular na nagngangalang Jose Apolonio Burgos. Ang mga kaanib ng bagong gitnang uri ay naging agresibo na isulong ang interes na dinadala ng pangkat panlipunan na kanilang kinabibilangan, pangunahin dito ay usapin ng kanilang paghahangad ng kapantayan sa mga Espanyol na noon ay may monopolyo sa mga matataas na puwesto sa kolonyal na burukrasya at simbahan.

Pagkakataon o tadhana, na sa panahon ng pag-aaral ni Paciano Mercado ay nakasama niya si Burgos na manirahan sa ilalim ng iisang bubungan. Ang pagiging malapit ng dalawa ay mapapansin sa salaysay ni Dr. Paz Policarpio-Mendez. May pagkakataon na naisasama ni Paciano si Burgos sa pagbisita sa kaniyang mga kapatid na babae na nag-aaral din sa Maynila, gayundin may pagkakataon na bumisita si Burgos kasama si Jacinto Zamora sa bayan ng Calamba sa paanyaya ni Paciano upang dumalo ng piyesta at doon nakita ni Jose Burgos ang batang kapatid na lalaki ni Paciano na kaniyang kapangalan". Ang pagiging malapit ni Paciano at Burgos ay isang indikasyon lamang ng kanilang pagiging iisa ng opinyon at interes.
Tahimik man ang mga aklat kasaysayan sa lalim at antas ng kamalayan na naipunla ni Burgos kay Paciano, ngunit ang apelyidong Mercado bilang isang aktibistang mag-aaral ay napahanay sa mga pangalang Buencamino, Sanciangco, Mapa. Soriano, Tizon, Alejandro at iba pang mga anak ng nakakariwasang Filipino na kabilang Juventud Escolar Liberal na naging aktibo at nangahas na nagdaos ng demontrasyon ng mga mag-aaral sa Maynila (na hinihinalang lihim na pinamumunuan ni Burgos).

Masakit ang naging hagupit ng tadhana para kay Paciano, bago matapos ang 1871, muling nabalik ang mga reaksiyonaryo sa pamahalaan at sa unang buwan ng 1872 naganap ang Pag-aalsa sa Cavite at sa sumunod na buwan, Si Burgos, ang lalaking kaniyang kasama, kausap, at kapalagayan loob ay nilatiran ng hininga ng kaniyang mga hayagan at lihim na kaaway sa andamyo ng bitayan ng Bagumbayan.

Si Paciano Bilang Magsasaka

Ang pangyayari ng 1872 ay nagsilbing isang balakid sa pagpapatuloy ng edukasyon ni Paciano. Pagkatapos ng trahedya, iniwan niya ang paaralan at nagbalik sa Calamba upang pangasiwaan ang lupain na inuupahan ng kanilang pamilya mula sa mga prayleng Dominikano. Pagkatapos ng pagbitay sa GOMBURZA, ginugol ni Paciano ang kaniyang panahon sa pagsasaka ng kanilang inuupahang bukirin at higit sa lahat sa pagbubungkal ng higit na mapangakong sakahan - ang kaisipan ng kaniyang kapatid.

Sa pag-uwi ni Paciano sa Calamba, nagtagubilin ang kaniyang ama ukol sa dalawang salita na hindi maaring banggitin sa kanilang tahanan - Burgos at Cavite. Sa kabila ng pagbabawal, naandoon ang pagkakataon ng pakikipagkuwentuhan sa kaniyang nakakabatang kapatid at naitanim niya ang binhi ni Jose Burgos sa matalas na isipan ng kaniyang batang kapatid, pagkukuwentuhan na ganap na nagpabago ng kahahantungan ng ating kasaysayan - binuhay ni Paciano ang ideya ng kaniyang kaibigan at kasamang si Jose Burgos sa katauhan ng kaniyang nakakabatang kapatid na si Jose Rizal.

Ang Pagsubaybay sa Edukasyon

Isa si Paciano sa nakapansin sa talino ng kaniyang kapatid, marahil ang _eksepsiyonal_ na katalinuhang taglay nito ang nagtulak upang mahinuha ni Paciano na ang kaniyang batang kapatid ay mayroong mapagpasiyang papel na gagampanan sa kasaysayan. Kung mayroon mang naging malaking interes si Paciano para sa kay Rizal ay ang mabigyan ito ng tumpak at progresibong edukasyon.

Sa kasaysayan ng pag-aaral ni Rizal ay makikita na laging nakabuntot sa likuran ang anino ni Paciano sa likuran. Unang-una na sa kaniyang pagpapatala Jose Rizal sa paaralan ni Justiniano Aquino Cruz, na kaniya ring naging dating guro sa Bi_¤"an. Sa kolehiyo, mapapansin ang pagsama niya sa kaniyang kapatid upang magpatala sa Ateneo at ng hindi matanggap si Rizal dahilan sa pagiging huli sa patalaan at kaliitan, hiningi niya ang tulong ni Manuel Xerxes Burgos upang ito ay matanggap sa nasabing paaralan.

Sa pagtatapos ng kolehiyo, ang matinding pagtutol ng ina ni Rizal sa pag-aaral sa Unibersidad ng Santo Tomas ay sinalungat ni Paciano, maging si Rizal ay kaniyang sinabi "Ngunit ang aking kapatid (Paciano) ay isinama ako sa Maynila sa kabila ng luha ng aking ina". Pagkatapos ng ilang taon sa Unibersidad , si Paciano ay gumawa ng paraan upang lihim na makaalis si Rizal patungo sa Espanya upang magpatuloy ng pag-aaral, at sa pamamagitan ng pensiyon na ipinadadala ni Paciano ay nai-agdong ni Rizal ang kaniyang pag-aaral ng medisina at pilosopiya sa Europa.

Kung ano ang dahilan ng pagpapakasakit ni Paciano para sa edukasyon ni Rizal ay mapapansin na sa kaniyang mapagpahiwatig na sulat dito:

."Tandaan mo na ang pangunahing dahilan ng iyong pag-alis ay hindi ang pagpapabuti ng iyong sarili sa propesyong iyon (medesina), bagkus ay para sa higit na kapaki-pakinabang na bagay"

Ang Lalaki sa Likuran ng Isang Nobela

Ang kadakilaan ni Rizal ay matatagpuan sa kaniyang pagsulat ng isang nobelang panlipunan na pinamagatang Noli Me Tangere, ang nobela ay utang natin sa kakaibang katalinuhang pangliteratura ng may-akda, sa malinaw na paglalarawan at pagsasalamin ng mga sakit ng lipunang kolonyal sa kaniyang panahon. Gayundin nagpasalamat ang kasaysayan kay Ginoong Viola na nagpahiram ng kaukulang salapi upang mailigtas ang nobela mula sa disulusyonadong balakin ng may-akda na gawing panggatong sa apoy ang manuskrito ng nobelang nagpabago ng tunguhin ng kasaysayan, ngunit nalimutan ng kasaysayan na pasalamatan ang dalawang tunay na pinagkakautangan ng nobela. Una, ang lalaki na tunay na gumastos sa pagpapalimbag ng nobela - si Paciano. Ang salaping ginamit sa pagbayad sa utang ng pagpapalimbag ng nobela ay galing sa pagod at pawis ng nakatatandang kapatid ng may-akda at; Pangalawa, tahimik ang kasaysayan sa pagbanggit (at pagpapasalamat) na ang salaping ginamit sa pagpapalimbag ng Noli Me Tangere ay nanggaling sa mismong mga bunga ng lupa ng Filipinas na noon ay binubusabos ng mga mapagsamantalang dayuhan.

Ngunit ang pagbabayad ni Paciano mahal na presyo ng nobela ay hindi lamang sa sukatan ng salapi higit sa lahat, sa sakripisyo na kaniyang tiniis. Ang sulat ni Rizal kay Paciano ay nagpaliwanag ng ganito :

Ukol sa presyo ng libro, nagkamali ako sa aking pagtantiya, Akala ko sa 1500 na kopya ay gugugol lamang ako ng P200 ngunit sa mga limbagan ito ay aabot pala ito ng halagang P 1,500... Hindi ako humihiling ng ganitong halaga; Alam kong napakalaki nito para sa isang aklat na maaring maghatid sa inyo ng higit na kapighatian kaysa sa kaligayahan.
„_„_

Sa pagsagot ni Paciano sa sulat ni Rizal ay nagpadala ito ng P 1,000, nais pa nga nito na magpadala ng higit ngunit ang asukal ay hindi pa nabibili Nagkaroon ng katuparan ang sinabi ni Rizal "Alam kong .... isang aklat na maaring maghatid sa inyo ng higit na kapighatian kaysa sa kaligayahan" dahilan sa ang pinakamalaking kabayaran na binata ni Paciano sa aklat na sinulat ng kaniyang batang kapatid ay ang paalisin ang pamilyang Rizal sa kanilang inuupahang sakahan ng mga Dominikano, at sunugin ang kanilang bahay sa Calamba at ipatapon si Paciano sa Mindoro, mula Septyembre 1890 hanggang Nobyembre 1891.

Ang Liberalismo tungo sa Radikalismo

Ang pagiging progresibo ni Paciano ay matatagpuan hindi lamang sa kaniyang pagsuporta sa kaniyang kapatid kundi maging sa kilusang propaganda, isa siya sa mga tagasuporta ng Diariong Tagalog, La Solidaridad at sa bandang huli ay tagasuporta ng Katipunan at isa sa mga aktibong nagpalaganap nito sa lalawigan ng Laguna.

Sa pagkabilanggo ng kaniyang kapatid noong 1896, si Paciano ay dinakip at ikinulong ng mga Espanyol at pisikal na pinahirapan ngunit ito ay kaniyang pinagtiisan upang hindi maisangkot ang kaniyang kapatid sa rebolusyon.

Ilang araw pagkatapos ng pagbitay kay Jose Rizal, natagpuan ni Paciano ang kaniyang sarili, kasama ng isa kaniyang kapatid na si Trinidad, at ng kaniyang hipag na si Josephine Bracken na binabagtas ang lalawigan ng Cavite na noon ay sentro ng Rebolusyong Filipino. Habang tinatawid nila ang tulay ng Zapote na hangganan ng Las Piñas at Cavite, mararandaman na hinuhubad na ng mga Rizal ang kanilang paniniwala sa reporma at niyapos na ang doktrina ng armadong pakikibaka para sa katubusan ng bayan mula sa kuko ng kolonyalismo.

Sa panahon ng himagsikang Filipino, si Paciano ay naglingkod bilang heneral ng rebolusyonaryong hukbo, nagpakita ng tapang, lideratura, at inpluwensiya sa tunguhin ng himagsikan. Ngunit ang pinakadakilang panahon ng kaniyang pamumuno ay naganap noong buwan ng Hunyo 1898. Isinalaysay ni Antonino Guevara y Mendoza sa kaniyang talatakdaan ang pangyayaring ito:

Pagkatapos ng anim na araw ng patuloy na paglusob, bumagsak ang Calamba, at ito ay kinubkob ni Senyor (Paciano) Rizal. Samantalang isinusuko ng mga talunang Espanyol ang kanilang mga sandata sa mga nagwaging Filipino, ang komandanteng Espanyol ay lumapit kay Senyor Rizal at nagwikang "Ako ay tiyak na babarilin ng aking mga nakakataas sa Maynila dahilan sa pagsuko. Ngunit, ang mga prayleng ito na inyo ngayong mga bihag ang maaring makapagligtas sa aking buhay. Nakikiusap ako na iligtas ang buhay ng mga prayle, at kung maari, ay mapanatili ko ang 11,000 piso na nasa aking pag-"iingat " Sumagot si Senyor Rizal na "Ingatan mo ang 11,000 piso at sumasang-ayon ako sa iyong pakiusap na iligtas ang buhay ng mga prayleng ito; sa kondisyon, na ipaalam mo sa kanila, na sila ang mga tunay na pumatay sa aking kapatid na si Doktor Rizal, at higit sa lahat, sila ang mga tunay na nasa likod ng pagwasak ng Calamba na aking tahanang bayan.""

Sa ganitong pagkakataon, ipinakita ni Paciano ang pagpapakumbaba sa harap ng tagumpay, at ang kahinahunan sa kabila ng silakbo at mapanuksong paghahangad ng paghihiganti, bagay na hindi niya nakita kahit kapiraso mula sa mga prayle noong pinipilipit ng garote ang leeg ni Burgos o nang tinutudla ng bala ang katawan ng kaniyang kapatid. Ipinakita ni Paciano na hindi siya ang halimaw na rebolusyonaryong kinatakutan ni Rizal ng kaniyang banggitin sa El Filibusterismo ang katagang A que la independencia, silos esclavos hoy, seran los tiranos de mañana - Para ano ang kalayaan, kung ang alipin ngayon, ang siyang maninikil bukas.

Pagkatapos ng pagkapanalo ng himagsikan laban sa Espanya, nakitang muli ni Paciano ang kaniyang sarili na muling nagtatangan ng sandata, sa pagkakataong ito hindi para matamo ang kalayaan, kung hindi sa mas malaking suliranin - ang preserbasyon ng kalayaan, na noon ay buong dahas na inaagaw ng mga Amerikano. Malakas ang bagong mananakop at sa proseso ng digmaan nadakip si Paciano, ngunit ang kaniyang katapatan sa kalayaang kaniyang ipinakipaglaban ay naipamalas niya ng tumanggi siyang maglingkod sa ilalim ng pamahalaan ng Amerika at pagpapakita ng delicadesa ng kaniyang tanggihan ang pensiyon na inaalok ng mga ito sa kaniyang mga matatandang magulang.

Ang Dakilang Filipino

Sa paglalagom ng artikulong ito, wala akong pangimi na angkinin na sa panahon ng sentenaryo ng kamartiran ni Jose Rizal ay hindi dapat na mawala sa ating paggunita ang nagawa ni Paciano. Kung tinitingala ng sambayanang Filipino si Jose Rizal sa pedestal ng mga bayani ito ay dahilan sa pagpaparaya ni Paciano ng kaniyang balikat upang magsilbing tuntungan para sa kadakilaan ng kaniyang nakababatang kapatid.

Si Jose Rizal mismo, sa kaniyang sulat kay Blumentritt ang nagbigay ng pinakamataas na parangal kay Paciano ng kaniyang sabihin dito na "Ang aking kapatid na si Paciano, ang pinakadakilang Filipino."

Mga Sanggunian:

"Ang lahat ay hiniram ng may akda, mula sa mga aklat sanggunian, ang tangi ko lamang maangkin ay ang mga kahinaan at kamalian.

1. Corpuz, Onofre D.: Roots of the Filipino Nation
2. Guerrero, Leon Ma.: The First Filipino
3. Guevara, Antonino y Mendoza: History of One the Initiators of the Filipino Revolution.
Isinalin ni Onofre D. Corpuz
4. Juaquin, Nick: Manila, My Manila
5. Mendez, Paz Policarpio: Adventure in Rizaliana
6. NHI: _Filipinos in History Volume II

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The Concept of Ki in Aikido

The concept of Ki in Aikido
A Literature survey
by Minhhuy Ho

Introduction: Ask a Chinese what is 'chi/qi' and you will get as many answers as you would asking an Aikidoka how to perform a kokyunage. A common answer is that chi refers to a particular mental and physical state that exhibits in a psychophysiological power associates with blood and breath. A chinese philosopher will talk about this microcosmical 'matter-energy' which is fundamental in forming and governing the universe. A traditional chinese physician, usually also a taoist by education, speaks about a microbiomaterial that circulates within the body, maintaining the living force that makes the body function. The chinese will probably accept any of these definitions in a 'matter-of-fact' manner and do not expect questions or disagreements concerning the meaning of chi. Of course this does not mean that they actually had a very accurate idea about the meaning of chi or that everybody knows exactly in what context one means when one talks about chi. In fact, the chinese probably means all of the above definitions, and more. This raises immediate problem for the western mind which makes clear distinctions between matter/mind, material/nonmaterial, physical/psychological/ physiological etc.. However one disagrees with the chinese blatant disregard for the cartesian dichotomy, this is in fact the way in which the chinese conceptualizes chi, or any other phenomena at all. Furthermore, they seems to be happy to trade off the analytical clarity for the imaginative richness.

When the chinese cosmic system which uses chi to explain the structure and function of virtually every phenomenon in the universe finally got transmitted to Japan in the seventh century, it had the shinto and tendai buddhist flavours added on. Unfortunately, or fortunately, the meaning of chi/ki did not get any clearer crossing the japanese sea. At any rate, from the oldest extant japanese work on traditional medicine, Ishopo by Tamba no Yasuyori, in the tenth century to modern works such as 'Qi: From the Analects to the New Science' by Maruyama Toshiaki, 'Qi: the Flowing body' by Harada Jiro one can see that both japanese and chinese traditional medicine share a basic conception of what it means to be fully human. Life is constituted by ki (in the sense of breath and energy), a force that manifests in respiration and that can be felt circulating within the body. Similarly, japanese drugs and concoctions are aimed specially at nourishing ki and enhancing its functioning.

Akido, a japanese martial art developed by master Mohirei Ueshiba earlier this century makes heavy use of the concept of ki. Aikido is one of the more spiritual martial arts and has been considered as 'moving zen'. The name Aikido means 'the way of harmony of ki'. Just exactly what is this ki that one supposes to harmonize with is a controversial topic among Aikidoka's. Some believes that the physical entity ki simply does not exist. Instead, the spirit, the intention, the bio-physico-psychological coordination through relaxation and awareness are concepts being used in the teaching. These Aikidoka's sometime tend to frown upon the philosophical/spiritual aspect of ki. Other Aikidoka's believe that ki does exist as a physical entity and can be transmitted through space. They, on the other hand, make use of concepts such as ki of the universe, extending ki etc.. By citing these two extremes, the author does not wish to imply that the 'truth' lies somewhere in between. But the fact of the matter is that there is a large portion of Aikidoka who are still, and no doubt will continue be, on their 'quest for ki'.

The task is not simple since many sensei's are reluctant to talk about ki. Those who do, do it in a very oriental way: full of metaphor, image and lack of clarity. The aim of this article is surveying the writting and teaching of Kaiso, his deshi's: Ueshiba, Tohei, Yamada, Shioda, Saito, Saotome, Nadeau, Dobson, Homa ... (listed in no particular order) to find out what they did mean when they mentioned the concept ki, or to find out whether one can come up with a definite answer at all. For the sake of simplicity, let's propose three simple definitions of ki:

Ki: the principle that governs the universe AND the individual, the cosmic truth.
Ki: the action from a particular state of mind and body that can have physical/psychological/physiological effect. This ki can be expressed, and hence, perceived through physical apprearance, behaviour, and body language.
Ki: similar to (2). However this ki can be expressed and perceived by means including but not limited to those listed in (2). One can see that from (1) to (3) the degree of abstract decreases while the physical component increases. The meaning of ki of course is not limited by the individual or combined definitions mentioned above.

Writings and Teachings of Saito, Yamada, Shioda, Homma, Nadeau and Dobson:Among the available Aikido literatures from Kaiso's deshi's, "Traditional Aikido" by Morihiro Saito sensei stands out as a classic. Nevertheless, in this five-volume work, the concept of ki is discussed only briefly: "Ki: the vital force of the body. Through Aikido training, the ki of a person can be drawn in increasing amount from the universe. In practice, ki is directed before body movement takes place." A short description of a series of exercises for ki flowing can be found in his later work "Aikido, its heart and appearance" where one "causes partner's ki to flow out (fluid)" and "calling out your partner's ki and linking it to yours". Yoshimitsu Yamada sensei, a marvelous Aikido technician, in "The New Aikido Complete" is even less specific about ki. He refers to ki as "the power of the spirit of the mind that we all possess but which we use only on rare occasion." There is no noticable mention of ki in the work of Gozo Shioda sensei, the founder of Yoshinkan Aikido.

These sensei's are accomplished Aikidoka's in every sense of the word. Saito sensei's profound knowledge about Aikido techniques especially his contribution to the jo, bokken kata's is well respected in Aikido and aiki-jitsu circles. Shioda sensei's flawless and spontaneous techniques can only be compared with the equilibrium and tranquility reflected in chinese landscape paintings. It is hardly possible that these masters, who studied with the master of ki himself, are ignorant of the importance of ki. One can hypothesize that these sensei's feel that the teaching of ki, whatever their definitions are, has no place in a technical manual and is best left unspoken. Andvanced students should experience and define the essence of the art themselves with the guidance of the sensei. This style of teaching, known as shinin (imprinting of the heart), is not foreign to the oriental. The saying "A special transmission outside the Scriptures, no dependence upon words and letters" sums up the fundamental of Zen teaching. As Shioda sensei wrote "They (martial arts) must not become mere intellectual exercises, the fundamental budo 'conduct' must not be treated lightly, and the 'way of technique' must not be neglected as a form of spiritual and physical training", he wished to emphasize the idea that the essence of Aikido - ki - would express itself to those who practice and follow basic techniques diligently. This sentiment seems also to be shared by Doshu in his interview with Stan Prannin.

The sincere and direct approach in "Aikido for Life" has made Homma sensei's book an excellent introduction to what it takes and what it tastes like to be an Aikidoka. Aikido for Life is not a technical manual per se, albeit several techniques and exercises were included, but rather a reflection on the physical and mental training process of Aikido. Homma sensei's book reflects his honest feeling about the art and the way it should be practiced. He performed an irimi to many conceptions and misconceptions in Aikido. Homma sensei devoted the whole second chapter to the discussion of ki, which he believes does not exist. "The word ki is made of two letters, 'k' and 'i' nothing more. Of course you know how difficult it is to undestand something that can only be imagined. Some try to describe this thing that doesn't exist by letting their explanations drift into the realm of mystery. The mystery of ki has been deceiving many students"

To Homma sensei, ki has no color, shape nor weight and cannot be shown by ki believer simply due to the fact that ki as a physical entity does not exist. Homma sensei himself however, does not come up with the definition of ki himself as it seems not to be within the scope of his book. Instead, he urges one to dicsover ki "through daily practice inside and outside the dojo" but not "adopting another's definition blindly." Aikido according to Homma sensei is the "training of the mind" which expresses itself through breathing. When one's mind, body movement, and breathing is in harmony with the surroundings, one experiences the true meaning of Aiki. In this aspect, Homma sensei's concept of ki seems to be similar to definition (2) mentioned above. Homma sensei credits several technical accomplishments such as 'unbendable arm', 'unliftable body' to consistent practice and rejects the contribution of the "mysterious power" of ki. However, he also credits the benefits of several Aikido exercises, such as nikkyo and kotegeashi wrist warm up, and practices such as open hand, back rolles to shiatsu (acupressure). This seems somewhat contradictory. The concepts of keiraku (chinese: jingluo, english: meridian), rokuzo (liuzang, six yin organs), roppu (liufu, six yang organs) mentioned in Homma sensei's book are those discovered/invented by chinese traditional medicine. From this perspective, shiatsu inherited its entire theoretical foundation from acupuncture. The concepts of channels existing in human (and animal) body and their associated ying and yang organs (which do not necessarily have the equivalence in western medicine) are unique to chinese traditional medicine. Their sole purpose is to circulate chi within the body. The chi mentioned here is a physical entity as defined earlier according to chinese traditional medicine. One cannot use these concepts without accepting their raison d'e^tre. It seems that Homma sensei has denied the existence of the physical aspect of ki in one context only to use it in another.

Among O sensei's first american deshi is Robert Nadeau sensei who came to study with the master in his late seventies. Nadeau sensei, being profficient in several martial arts, has profound impact on his students not only thought his super physical techniques but also his dynamic approach by way of harmoninzing physical and mental concepts, action and comtemplation. Since there is no literature available by Nadeau sensei, his teaching will be extracted from the works of two of his decorated deshi's : Richard Strozzi Heckler and George Leonard.

In "The Ultimate Athelete", Leonard sensei describes a typical Energy-Body workshop pioneered by Nadeau sensei. The workshop begins with the assumption that "a field of energy exists in and around each human body". This energy is ki, "a single manifestation that includes emanations that can be measured by our present science, plus other esoteric or metaphorical amanations". One of the exercise in the workshop is "sensing the energy body" where partners stand with arms extending towards each other. When one 'feels' the energy from one's partner, one is asked to move apart to find out how far away one can still sense the energy connection. It is also obvious from other exercises that Nadeau sensei's idea of ki includes definitions (2) and (3).

"The Anatomy of Changes" by Heckler sensei portrays his effort to utilize Aikido principles in psychotherapy. The book describes the hara as "a point two inches below the navel, as the center of gravity and the place where ki (or life energy) originates". One can "feel or imagine a warmth in this area" to center oneself. To "ground" oneself (feel the connection between the body and the ground), one extends ki by feeling or imagining one's energy as "a strong flowing current that moves from your belly through your pelvis and legs, deep into the earth". Similarly, "unbendable arm" is done by feeling or imagining that "a current of powerful energy flowing through and out of this arm for a distance of a thousand miles. Your arm is like a conduit for a limitless and far-reaching energy that effortlessly flows through it. When you start to feel tingling, vibrating, or streaming sensations in your body and arms, continue to relax, and allows these sensations to join the current that is flowing through your arm". Again, this way of conceptualizing ki has more overlap with definition (3) than (2).

Terry Dobson sensei received the mission from O sensei to spread the spirit of Aikido to his people when he was one of Kaiso's last uchi deshi's. His life was the proof for the fulfillment of that promise as he refers to himself as a "ki mechanic". His only written work left is "Aikido in Everyday Life" though he has "imprinted the hearts" of many by his teaching. In "Aikido in Everyday Life" Dobson sensei refers to the one point "where one should be living ... it is the 'organ' which can sense attack faster than the intellect." This one point, according to Dobson sensei, is the protective spirit, ki, which is employed in unraisable body exercise. But ki also is one's "connection to all life, time, and space; nowness; and energy". Throughout his life, Dobson sensei has been the mechanic for a more down-to-earth kind of ki. "Aikido in Everyday Life" was written to solve life conflicts by Aikido techniques. As he wrote "It is possible for a liar or a cheat to use Aiki or any of otherfive attacks to responses and aim for a 'kill' or a 'win' over somebody who has made the mistake of attacking him. But strange things begin to happen to people who become involved with Attack-tics ... even the most mean spirited of people begin to relinquish their grasp on their aggression, lose their anger, and reconnect with the living force". From his well known story "A Kind Word Turneth Away Wrath", one can see that the essence of Aikido according to Dobson sensei has a strong social implication. It seems that Dobson sensei's concept of ki covers all three definitions mentioned above.

References:W.-T. Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, Princeton University Press, 1973.
Y.-L. Fung, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, McMillan Press, 1966.
T. J. Kaptchuk, The Web that has no Weaver. Understanding Chinese Medicine, Congdon and Weed, New York, 1983.
W.-M. Tu, Confucian Thought, State University of New York Press, 1985.
S.-C. Huang, Chang Tsai's concept of Chi, Philosophy East and West, vol. 18, pp. 247, 1968.
Y. S. Kim, The Concept of Chi in Chu Hsi's philosophy, Philosophy East and West, vol. 34, 1984.
Y. Sakade, Longevity Techniques in Japan. Ancient Source and Contemporary Studies, in Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques, Eds. L. Kohn and Y. Sakade, Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1989.
Morihiro Saito, Traditional Aikido, vol I-V, Minato Research and Publications 1974.
Morihiro Saito, Aikido, its Heart and Appearance, Minato Research and Publications 1975.
Yoshimitsu Yamada, The New Aikido Complete, Carol Publishing Group 1981
Gozo Shioda, Dynamic Aikido, Kodansha Publishing 1968. Translator: Hamilton Jeffrey.
Stan Prannin in Aikido and the New Warrior, Eds. Richard Heckler and Goerge Leonard, North Atlantic Books 1990.
The Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, An Outline of Chinese Acupuncture, Foreign Langauges Press, 1975.
Felix Mann, Acupuncture. The Ancient Chinese Art of Healing and How it Works Scientifically, Vintage Books 1973.
Shizuto Masunaga with Wataru Ohashi, Zen and Shiatsu. How to Harmonize Yin and Yang for Better Health, Japan Publication 1977.
Toru Namikoshi, Shiatsu and Stretching, Japan Publication 1985.
George Leonard, The Ultimate Athelete. Revising Sports, Physical Education and the Body, The Viking Press 1975.
Richard Strozzi Heckler, The Anatomy of Change. East/West Approaches to Body/Mind Therapy, Shambhala Publication 1985.
Terry Dobson and Victor Miller, Aikido in Everyday Life, North Atlantic Books 1983.
Aikido Today Magazine, The Journal of the Martial Arts and Spiritual Discipline of Aikido, #25, vol. 6 1992/1993.

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Council of Nicea

The Council of Nicea

When Constantine defeated Emperor Licinius in 323 AD he ended the persecutions against the Christian church. Shortly afterwards Christians faced a trouble from within: the Arian controversy began and threatened to divide the church. The problem began in Alexandria, it started as a debate between the bishop Alexander and the presbyter (pastor, or priest) Arius. Arius proposed that if the Father begat the Son, the latter must have had a beginning, that there was a time when he was not, and that his substance was from nothing like the rest of creation. The Council of Nicea, a gathering similar to the one described in Acts 15:4-22, condemned the beliefs of Arius and wrote the first version of the now famous creed proclaiming that the Son was "one in being with the Father" by use of the Greek word "homoousius."

How Controversial was the Arian Controversy?

There were some three hundred bishops gathered at the Council of Nicea from all around the world. Eusebius lists many of them and their country of origin in his writings. It should be remembered that many of those present had, because of the recent persecutions, suffered and had faced threat of death for their faith. These were not wishy-washy men. It might also be remarked, that they were extremely sensitive to details of doctrine. As evidence of this, the second major concern of the Council of Nicea was to address the hotly debated question of what the proper day was to celebrate the resurrection.

The bishops of the Council stopped their ears on hearing the words of Arius and immediately rejected his teaching as distant and alien from the belief of the Church. They tore to pieces a letter of Eusebius of Nicomedia containing Arius' teaching, as well as an Arian confession of faith (see the appendix on the Council of Nicea in Baker Book House's, "Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History").

Originally seventeen of those bishops gathered at the council were unwilling to sign the Creed penned by the Council, and all but three of these were convinced to sign by the end. It is thus apparent that the Arians were a distinct minority among the bishops. Initially there was some resistance to the Nicene Creed, not because of what it said but because of how it said it. Many objected to the use of the word "homoousias" in an official document because it was not used in Scripture, despite their agreement with the meaning it conveyed.

The Council interrogated Arius using Scripture, only to find that he had a new way of interpreting every verse they brought before him. Finally, they used the argument that Arius' view had to be wrong because it was new. Athanasius says, "But concerning matters of faith, they [the bishops assembled at Nicea] did not write: 'It has been decided,' but 'Thus the Catholic Church believes.' And thereupon confessed how they believed. This they did to show that their judgement was not of more recent origin, but was in fact of Apostolic times..." (Volume 1, Faith of the Early Fathers, p338). In this regard also, Athanasius askes rhetorically, "... how many fathers [in other words, the writings of the early Christians] can you cite for your phrases?" (Ibid, p325)

It must be concluded, then, that the controversy was between a great majority who held the belief that the doctrine expressed by the Nicene Creed was ancient and Apostolic, and a minority who believed that Arius' new interpretation of the faith was correct .

The Word Homoousious

The Nicene Creed introduced the word "homoousious" or "consubstantial" meaning "of one substance." This word was not invented at the Council. Eusebius writes that some of the "most learned and distinguished of the ancient bishops had made use of consubstantial in treating of the divinity of the Father and the Son" (See document E in the Appendix, Baker). We do not have the sources that Eusebius must have had regarding the use of this word. Today, the only source is Origen who used the word in what seems the orthodox way (Johannes Quastren, "Patrology," Volume 2, p78). However, this phrase of Eusebius stands as a witness to the existence of wider use.

The bishops assembled at Nicea were careful to explain how they used the word, and what it meant. This is because it had been misused by Paul of Samosta. Regarding this unorthodox usage, St. Hilary and St. Basil say that it was said to be "unfit to describe the relation between the Father and the Son" at a council that met in Antioch (Ibid, p14). Apparently Paul of Samosta applied the word in a manner that implied division of nature, as several coins are from the same metal (Baker, p21).

The Role of Constantine

The controversy greatly agitated Emperor Constantine, and he sent a letter to Arius and Alexander in an attempt to persuade them to lay aside their differences. He wrote, "This contention has not arisen respecting any important command of the law, nor has any new opinion been introduced with regard to the worship of God; but you both entertain the same sentiments, so that you may join in one communion. It is thought to be not only indecorous, but altogether unlawful, that so numerous a people of God should be governed and directed at your pleasure, while you are thus emulously contending with each other, and quarrelling about small and very trifling matters."

It has been suggested that because Constantine referred to the issue as "trifling" that he did not really understand it. Strangely, it is recorded in a letter by Eusebius of Caesarea that the Emperor suggested the key word "homoousious" that appears in the Nicene Creed. He says the Emperor explained the term as well, showing its difference from the heretical usage by Paul of Samosta. It has been speculated that the Emperor made his suggestion at the prompting of Hosius of Cordova, the Emperor's advisor and a man who was persecuted under Maximian.

Constantine did play an important role at the Council. Eusebius of Caesarea reports that he played an key part in calming, convincing, and bringing all to agreement on contested points. The account of Eusebius fairly glows in regard to the Emperor, and he is portrayed as a key figure. It is nowhere suggested, however, that he was permitted to vote with the bishops nor that he used any form of force to obtain an outcome.

It may be that the eloquence and glory of the Emperor had sway with some, however it should be remembered that he did eventually (years after the Council) support the Arian party. A few years after the Council of Nicea, Arius discovered a new way to interpret the word "homoousius" that agreed with his doctrines. He then asked to be readmitted to communion, but the Church refused. Arius then appealed to the Emperor. Emperor Constantine's favorite sister, Constantia, on her deathbed, implored Constantine to support Arius and he did so. A date was set for the forcing of the Church to readmit Arius, but while he was waiting for Constantine to arrive Arius stopped to relive himself and his bowels burst and he died. (See Arians of the 4th Century, Chapter III, Section II by John Henry Newman)

It is hard to imagine how a man who had supposedly argued with eloquence for the Nicene Creed and who supposedly formulated the key phrase and explained it would simply abandon it for a mere submission to the words and not the meaning of the Creed. It is also hard to imagine how the account of Eusebius can be reconciled to the Emperor's apparent failure to grasp the issue apparent in his letter. It is also hard to imagine how a man who had been such a humble servant of the Church at Nicea would attempt to force the Church to accept his decisions at this later date. It seems reasonable on these grounds to suppose that Eusebius of Caesarea wrote a less than accurate account designed to give credit and flattery to the emperor.

Nor was Constantine the last emperor to side with the Arians. Athanasius writes concerning this in "The Monks' History of Arian Impiety' (AD 358) saying, "When did a decision of the Church receive its authority from the emperor?" and "never did the fathers seek the consent of the emperor for them [councilar decrees of the Church], nor did the emperor busy himself in the Church." He goes on to say that the heretics banded with the emperor. (See Faith of the Early Fathers, Volume I, by William Jurgens).

The Church was willing to accept the help of an emperor, to listen to what he had to say, but not to accept the rule of an emperor in matters of faith. However one describes the role of Constantine at the Council of Nicea, it must be remembered that the Creed of Nicea expressed what the great majority of bishops at the council found to be traditional, Biblical, and orthodox of the Christian faith, a faith in which they believed so firmly that they were willing to die for it.

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